Decomposition or rotting is the process by which tissues of a dead organism In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole. An organism may either be unicellular (single-celled) or be composed of, as in humans, many trillions of cells grouped into break down into simpler forms of matter. The process is essential for new growth and development of living organisms because it recycles the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biome Biome are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, and are often referred to as ecosystems. Biomes are defined by factors such as plant structures , leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and. Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death Death is the termination of the biological functions that define a living organism. The word refers both to a particular process and to the condition that results thereby. The nature of the latter has been for millennia a central concern of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical enquiry. Belief in some kind of afterlife or rebirth. It is a cascade of processes that go through distinct phases. It may be categorized in two stages by the types of end products. The first stage is characterized by the formation of liquid materials; flesh or plant matter begin to decompose. The second stage is limited to the production of vapors. The science which studies such decomposition generally is called taphonomy Taphonomy[note 1] is the study of decaying organisms over time and how they become fossilized . The term taphonomy, (from the Greek taphos - τάφος meaning burial, and nomos - νόμος meaning law), was introduced to paleontology in 1940 by Russian scientist Ivan Efremov to describe the study of the transition of remains, parts, or products from the Greek Greek , an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, is the language of the Greeks. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical ancient Greek literature and the New Testament of word taphos, which means grave. Besides the two stages mentioned above, historically the progression of decomposition of the flesh of dead organisms has been viewed also as four phases:

1. fresh (autolysis In biology autolysis or more commonly known as self digestion refers to the destruction of a cell through the action of its own enzymes. It may also refer to the digestion of an enzyme by another molecule of the same enzyme. The term derives from the Greek words αυτό and λύσις ("splitting"));
2. bloat (putrefaction Putrefaction is the decomposition of animal proteins, especially by anaerobic microorganisms, described as putrefying bacteria. Decomposition is a more general process. Putrefaction usually results in amines such as putrescine and cadaverine, which have a putrid odor. Material that is subject to putrefaction is called putrescible);
3. decay (putrefaction and carnivores);
4. dry (diagenesis In geology and oceanography, diagenesis is any chemical, physical, or biological change undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition and during and after its lithification, exclusive of surface alteration and metamorphism. These changes happen at relatively low temperatures and pressures and result in changes to the rock's original).

Contents 1 Ambient conditions 1.1 Exposure to the elements 1.2 Media for bacterial growth 1.3 Ambient temperature 2 Plant decomposition 3 Animal decomposition 4 Food decomposition 5 Human decomposition 5.1 Stages 5.1.1 Fresh 5.1.2 Putrefaction 5.1.3 Black putrefaction 5.1.4 Butyric fermentation 5.1.5 Dry decay 6 Importance to forensics 7 Factors affecting decomposition 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

Ambient conditions

Exposure to the elements

A dead body that is exposed to the open elements, such as water and air, will decompose more quickly and attract much more insect Insects are a class within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax, and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae. They are among the most diverse group of animals on the planet and include more than a million described species and represent more than half of all known living activity than a body that is buried or confined in special protective gear or artifacts. This is due, in part, to the limited number of insects that can penetrate a coffin and the lower temperatures under soil.

Media for bacterial growth

Similarly, a submerged body is shielded from air-living organisms; however, it is exposed to a new set of waterborne breakdown agents such as the bountiful water life and marine bacteria.

Ambient temperature

Ultimately, the rate of bacterial decomposition acting on the tissue will depend upon the temperature of the surroundings. Colder temperatures decrease the rate of decomposition while warmer temperatures increase it.

Plant decomposition

See also: Composting Compost is composed of organic materials derived from plant and animal matter that has been decomposed largely through aerobic decomposition. The process of composting is simple and practiced by individuals in their homes, farmers on their land, and industrially by industries and cities and Anaerobic digestion Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen, used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste and/or to release energy A decaying peach over a period of six days. Each frame is approximately 12 hours apart, as the fruit shrivels and becomes covered with mold Molds are fungi that grow in the form of multicellular filaments, called hyphae. In contrast, microscopic fungi that grow as single cells are called yeasts. A connected network of these tubular branching hyphae has multiple, genetically identical nuclei and is considered a single organism, referred to as a colony or in more technical terms a.

Decomposition of plant matter occurs in many stages. It begins with leaching by water; the most easily lost and soluble carbon compounds are liberated in this process. Another early process is physical breakup or fragmentation of the plant material into smaller bits which have greater surface area for microbial A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is microscopic (too small to be seen by the naked human eye). The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope of his own design colonization and attack. In smaller dead plants, this process is largely carried out by the soil invertebrate fauna, whereas in the larger plants, primarily parasitic life-forms such as insects and fungi play a major breakdown role and are not assisted by numerous detritivore Detritivores, also known as detritus feeders or saprophages, are heterotrophs that obtain nutrients by consuming detritus . By doing so, they contribute to decomposition and the nutrient cycles species. Following this, the plant detritus In biology, detritus is non-living particulate organic material . It typically includes the bodies or fragments of dead organisms as well as fecal material. Detritus is typically colonized by communities of microorganisms which act to decompose (or remineralize) the material. In terrestrial ecosystems, it is encountered as leaf litter and other (consisting of cellulose Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula n, a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4) linked D-glucose units, hemicellulose Hemicellulose contains many different sugar monomers. In contrast, cellulose contains only anhydrous glucose. For instance, besides glucose, sugar monomers in hemicellulose can include xylose, mannose, galactose, rhamnose, and arabinose. Hemicelluloses contain most of the D-pentose sugars, and occasionally small amounts of L-sugars as well. Xylose, microbial products, and lignin Lignin or lignen is a complex chemical compound most commonly derived from wood, and an integral part of the secondary cell walls of plants and some algae. The term was introduced in 1819 by de Candolle and is derived from the Latin word lignum, meaning wood. It is one of the most abundant organic polymers on Earth, exceeded only by cellulose,) undergoes chemical alteration by microbes. Different types of compounds decompose at different rates. This is dependent on their chemical structure A chemical structure includes molecular geometry, electronic structure and crystal structure of a chemical compound. Molecular geometry refers to the spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule and the chemical bonds that hold the atoms together. Molecular geometry can range from the very simple, such as diatomic oxygen or nitrogen molecules, to. For instance, lignin Lignin or lignen is a complex chemical compound most commonly derived from wood, and an integral part of the secondary cell walls of plants and some algae. The term was introduced in 1819 by de Candolle and is derived from the Latin word lignum, meaning wood. It is one of the most abundant organic polymers on Earth, exceeded only by cellulose, is a component of wood, which is relatively resistant to decomposition and can in fact only be decomposed by certain fungi A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. The Fungi (pronounced /ˈfʌndʒaɪ/ or /ˈfʌŋɡaɪ/) are classified as a kingdom that is separate from plants, animals and bacteria. One major difference is that fungal cells have cell, such as the black-rot fungi. Said fungi are thought to be seeking the nitrogen Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere content of lignin rather than its carbon Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. There are three naturally occurring isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of content. Lignin is one such remaining product of decomposing plants with a very complex chemical structure causing the rate of microbial breakdown to slow. Warmth determines the speed of plant decay, with the rate of decay increasing as heat increases, e.g. a plant in a warm environment will decay over a shorter period of time.

In most grassland Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae) and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants (forbs). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) families can also be found. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica. In temperate latitudes, such as northwest Europe and the Great Plains and ecosystems, natural damage from fire Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition, insects that feed on decaying matter, termites The termites are a group of eusocial insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera . Along with ants and some bees and wasps which are all placed in the separate order Hymenoptera, termites divide labour among gender lines, produce overlapping generations and take care of young collectively. Termites mostly feed on dead plant, grazing Grazing generally describes a type of predation in which a herbivore feeds on plants , and also on other multicellular autotrophs (such as algae). Grazing differs from true predation because the organism being eaten is not killed, and it differs from parasitism as the two organisms do not live together, nor is the grazer necessarily so limited in mammals, and the physical movement of animals through the grass are the primary agents of breakdown and nutrient cycling In ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or nutrient cycle is a pathway by which a chemical element or molecule moves through both biotic and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth. In effect, the element is recycled, although in some cycles there may be places (called reservoirs) where the element is, while bacteria and fungi play the main roles in further decomposition.

The chemical aspects of plant decomposition always involve the release of carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state. CO2 is a trace gas comprising 0.039% of the atmosphere.

Animal decomposition

Ants A phylogeny of the extant ant subfamilies cleaning a dead snake Snakes are elongate, legless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes that can be distinguished from legless lizards by their lack of eyelids and external ears. Like all squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of snakes have skulls with many more joints than their lizard ancestors,

Decomposition begins at the moment of death, caused by two factors: autolysis In biology autolysis or more commonly known as self digestion refers to the destruction of a cell through the action of its own enzymes. It may also refer to the digestion of an enzyme by another molecule of the same enzyme. The term derives from the Greek words αυτό and λύσις ("splitting"), the breaking down of tissues Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. Hence, a tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues by the body's own internal chemicals and enzymes Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, called the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates. Since enzymes are selective for their, and putrefaction Putrefaction is the decomposition of animal proteins, especially by anaerobic microorganisms, described as putrefying bacteria. Decomposition is a more general process. Putrefaction usually results in amines such as putrescine and cadaverine, which have a putrid odor. Material that is subject to putrefaction is called putrescible, the breakdown of tissues by bacteria The bacteria ( [bækˈtɪəriə] ; singular: bacterium)[α] are a large group of single-celled, prokaryote microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria are ubiquitous in every habitat on Earth, growing in soil, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste,. These processes release gases Gas is one of three classical states of matter. Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point , boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are so energized that they leave their parent atoms that are the chief source of the unmistakably putrid odor An odor or odour is caused by one or more volatilized chemical compounds, generally at a very low concentration, that humans or other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction. Odors are also called scents, which can refer to both pleasant and unpleasant odors. The terms fragrance, scent, and aroma are used primarily by the food and cosmetic of decaying animal tissue.

Most decomposers are bacteria The bacteria ( [bækˈtɪəriə] ; singular: bacterium)[α] are a large group of single-celled, prokaryote microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria are ubiquitous in every habitat on Earth, growing in soil, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, or fungi A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. The Fungi (pronounced /ˈfʌndʒaɪ/ or /ˈfʌŋɡaɪ/) are classified as a kingdom that is separate from plants, animals and bacteria. One major difference is that fungal cells have cell, though scavengers Scavenging, or necrophagy, is a carnivorous feeding behaviour in which a predator consumes corpses or carrion that were not killed to be eaten by the predator or others of its species. Scavengers play an important role in the ecosystem by contributing to the decomposition of dead animal remains. Decomposers complete this process, by consuming the also play an important role in decomposition if the body is accessible to insects Insects are a class within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax, and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae. They are among the most diverse group of animals on the planet and include more than a million described species and represent more than half of all known living and other animals. The most important insects that are involved in the process include the flesh-flies Flies of the Diptera family Sarcophagidae are commonly known as flesh flies. Most flesh flies breed in carrion, dung, or decaying material, but a few species lay their eggs in the open wounds of mammals; hence their common name. Some flesh fly larvae are internal parasites of other insects. These larvae, commonly known as maggots, live for about 5- (Sarcophagidae) and blow-flies The name blow-fly comes from an older English term for meat that had eggs laid on it, which was said to be fly blown. The first known association of the term “blow” with flies appears in the plays of William Shakespeare: Love's Labour's Lost, The Tempest, and Antony and Cleopatra (Calliphoridae Blow-flies are insects in the Order Diptera, family Calliphoridae. The family is known to be non-monophyletic, but much remains disputed regarding proper treatment of the constituent units, some of which are occasionally accorded family status (e.g., Bengaliidae, Helicoboscidae, Polleniidae, Rhiniidae)), such as the green-bottle fly seen in the summer. The most important non-insect animals that are typically involved in the process include larger scavengers, such as: coyotes The coyote (Canis latrans), also known as the American jackal or the prairie wolf, is a species of canid found throughout North and Central America, ranging from Panama in the south, north through Mexico, the United States and Canada. It occurs as far north as Alaska and all but the northernmost portions of Canada. There are currently 19, dogs The dog is a domesticated form of the gray wolf, a member of the Canidae family of the order Carnivora. The term is used for both feral and pet varieties. The domestic dog has been one of the most widely kept working and companion animals in human history, wolves The grey wolf , often known simply as the wolf, is the largest wild member of the Canidae family. Though once abundant over much of Eurasia and North America, the grey wolf inhabits a reduced portion of its former range due to widespread destruction of its territory, human encroachment, and the resulting human-wolf encounters that sparked broad, foxes Fox is a common name for many species of carnivorous mammals belonging to the Canidae family. Foxes are small to medium-sized canids , characterized by possessing a long narrow snout, and a bushy tail (or brush), rats Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents of the superfamily Muroidea. "True rats" are members of the genus Rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, Rattus rattus, and the brown rat, Rattus norvegicus. Many members of other rodent genera and families are also referred to as rats, and share many, crows and vultures. Some of these scavengers also remove and scatter bones, which they ingest at a later time.

Food decomposition

Main article: Meat spoilage

This section requires expansion with: information from the main article.

The decomposition of food, called spoilage in this context, is an important field of study within food science.

Human decomposition

Stages

Once death occurs, human decomposition takes place in stages. The process of tissue breakdown may take from several days up to years. At all stages of decomposition, insect activity occurs on the body as detailed below.

Fresh

The fresh stage of decomposition occurs during the first few days following death. There are no physical signs of decomposition during this time. However, homeostasis of the body has ceased, allowing cellular and soft tissue changes to occur because of the process of autolysis, the destruction of cells and organs due to an aseptic chemical process. At this point, the body enters algor mortis, the cooling of the body's temperature to that of its surroundings. When the body’s cells reach the final stage of autolysis, an anaerobic environment is created, that is, an environment wherein oxygen is not present. This allows the body’s normal bacteria to break down the remaining carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. The products from the breakdown create acids, gases, and other products which cause volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and putrefactive effects. VOCs are produced during the early stages of human decomposition.^[1]

Substances produced during the fresh stage of decomposition attract a variety of insects. Insects belonging to the order Diptera begin to lay their eggs on the body during this stage, especially members of the Calliphoridae family.^[2] There is also considerable activity by soil dwelling insects around a body that it is on the ground or buried in the soil. The reasoning for this is simple: a dead human body serves as an excellent source of decaying matter to feed on in a very hospitable environment.

Putrefaction

Odor, color changes, and bloating of the body during decomposition are the results of putrefaction. The lower part of the abdomen turns green due to bacteria activity in the cecum. Bacteria break down hemoglobin into sulfhemoglobin, which causes the green color. A formation of gases enters the abdomen, which forces liquids and feces out of the body. The gases also enter the neck and face, causing swelling of the mouth, lips, and tongue. Due to this swelling and misconfiguration of the face, identification of the body can be difficult. Bacteria also enter the venous system causing blood to hemolyze. This leads to the formation of red streaks along the veins. This color soon changes to green through a process known as marbelization. It can be seen on the chest and shoulder area and on the thighs. The skin can develop blisters containing serous fluid. The skin also becomes fragile, leading to skin slippage, making it difficult to move a body. Body hair comes off easily. The change of the green discoloration to brown marks the transition of the early stage of putrefaction to the advanced decomposition stages.

During the putrefaction stage of decomposition the majority of insect activity again comes from members of the Calliphoridae family, and includes: Formicidae, Muscidae, Sphaeroceridae, Silphidae, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Sarcophagidae, Histeridae, Staphylinidae, Phalangida, Piophilidae, Araneae, Sepsidae, and Phoridae. As with the fresh stage of decomposition if the body is on the ground or buried in soil there is also considerable insect activity by the soil-inhabiting arthropods.

Black putrefaction

After the body goes through the bloating stage it begins the black putrefaction stage. At this point the body cavity ruptures, the abdominal gases escape and the body darkens from its greenish color. These activities allow for a greater invasion of scavengers, and insect activity increases greatly. This stage ends as the bones become apparent, which can take anywhere from 10 to 20 days after death depending on the surrounding environmental conditions. This period is also dependent on the degree to which the body is exposed to each and any of the varying elements and conditions.

During the black putrefaction stage of decomposition, insects that can be found living in the body are: Calliphoridae larvae, Staphylinidae, Histeridae, Gamasid mites, Ptomaphila, Trichopterygidae, Piophilid larvae, Parasitic wasps, Staphylinid larvae, Trichopterygid larvae, Histerid larvae, Ptomaphila larvae, Dermestes, Tyroglyphid mites, Tineid larvae, and the Dermestes larvae. Some insects can also be found living in the soil around the body such as: Isopoda, Collembola, Dermaptera, Formicidae, Pseudoscorpiones, Araneae, Plectochetos, Acari, Pauropoda, Symphyla, Geophilidae, and Protura. The types of insects will differ based on where the body is, although Diptera larvae can be found feeding on the body in almost all cases.

Butyric fermentation

After the early putrefaction and black putrefaction phases have taken place, the body begins mummification, in which the body begins to dry out. Once the human carcass has mummified it goes through saponification, the formation of adipocere (grave wax), referring to the loss of body odor and the formation of a cheesy appearance on the cadaver. Mummification is considered a post-active stage because there is less definite distinction between changes as indicated by reduced skin, cartilage, and bone. Mummification is also indicated when all of the internal organs are lost due to insect activity.

Insects that can be found on the body during mummification include most of the same insects as in the putrefaction stage, but also include: Acarina, Nitidulidae, Cleridae, Dermestes caninus, and Trogidae. The main soil-inhabiting arthropods include Dermaptera and Formicidae.

Dry decay

When the last of the soft-tissue has been removed from the body, the final stage of decomposition, skeletonization, occurs. This stage encompasses the deterioration of skeletal remains, and is the longest of the decomposition processes. Skeletonization differs markedly from the previous stages, not only in length, but in the deterioration process itself.

The strength and durability of bone stems from the unique protein-mineral bond present in skeletal formation. Consequently, changes to skeletal remains, known as bone diagenesis, occur at a substantially slower rate than stages of soft-tissue breakdown. As the protein-mineral bond weakens after death, however, the organic protein begins to leach away, leaving behind only the mineral composition. Unlike soft-tissue decomposition, which is influenced mainly by temperature and oxygen levels, the process of bone breakdown is more highly dependent on soil type and pH, along with presence of groundwater. However, temperature can be a contributing factor, as higher temperature leads the protein in bones to break down more rapidly. If buried, remains decay faster in acidic-based soils rather than alkaline. Bones left in areas of high moisture content also decay at a faster rate. The water leaches out skeletal minerals, which corrodes the bone, and leads to bone disintegration.^[3]

At the dry decay stage commonly found insects include: Sphaeroceridae, Acarina, Nitidulidae, Cleridae, Dermestes caninus, Trogidae, Tyroglyphid mites, and the Tineid larvae. The soil-inhabiting arthropods are: Collembola, Dermaptera, Heteroptera, Coleoptera and their larvae, parasitic Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Diptera larvae, Pseudoscorpiones, Aranae, Plectochetos, Acari, Pauropoda, Symphyla, Geophilidae, Protura, and Aphididae.

Importance to forensics

Further information: Forensic entomological decomposition

Various sciences study the decomposition of bodies under the general rubric of forensics because the usual motive for such studies is to determine the time and cause of death for legal purposes:

• Forensic pathology studies the clues to the cause of death found in the corpse as a medical phenomenon.
• Forensic entomology studies the insects and other vermin found in corpses; the sequence in which they appear, the kinds of insects, and where they are found in their life cycle are clues that can shed light on the time of death, the length of a corpse's exposure, and whether the corpse was moved.^[4][5]
• Forensic anthropology is the branch of physical anthropology that studies skeletons and human remains, usually to seek clues as to the identity, race, and sex of their former owner.^[6][7]

The University of Tennessee Anthropological Research Facility (better known as the Body Farm) in Knoxville, Tennessee has a number of bodies laid out in various situations in a fenced-in plot near the medical center. Scientists at the Body Farm study how the human body decays in various circumstances to gain a better understanding into decomposition.

Factors affecting decomposition

Further information: Environmental effects on forensic entomology

The rate and manner of decomposition in an animal body is strongly affected by a number of factors. In roughly descending degrees of importance, they are:

• Temperature;
• The availability of oxygen;
• Prior embalming;
• Cause of death;
• Burial, and depth of burial;
• Access by scavengers;
• Trauma, including wounds and crushing blows;
• Humidity, or wetness;
• Rainfall;
• Body size and weight;
• Clothing;
• The surface on which the body rests;
• Foods/objects inside the specimen's digestive tract (bacon compared to lettuce).

The speed at which decomposition occurs varies greatly. Factors such as temperature, humidity, and the season of death all determine how fast a fresh body will skeletonize or mummify. A basic guide for the effect of environment on decomposition is given as Casper's Law (or Ratio): if all other factors are equal, then, when there is free access of air a body decomposes twice as fast than if immersed in water and eight times faster than if buried in earth.

The most important variable is a body's accessibility to insects, particularly flies. On the surface in tropical areas, invertebrates alone can easily reduce a fully fleshed corpse to clean bones in under two weeks. The skeleton itself is not permanent; acids in soils can reduce it to unrecognizable components. This is one reason given for the lack of human remains found in the wreckage of the Titanic, even in parts of the ship considered inaccessible to scavengers. Freshly skeletonized bone is often called "green" bone and has a characteristic greasy feel. Under certain conditions (normally cool, damp soil), bodies may undergo saponification and develop a waxy substance called adipocere, caused by the action of soil chemicals on the body's proteins and fats. The formation of adipocere slows decomposition by inhibiting the bacteria that cause putrefaction.

In extremely dry or cold conditions, the normal process of decomposition is halted – by either lack of moisture or temperature controls on bacterial and enzymatic action – causing the body to be preserved as a mummy. Frozen mummies commonly restart the decomposition process when thawed, whilst heat-desiccated mummies remain so unless exposed to moisture.

The bodies of newborns who never ingested food are an important exception to the normal process of decomposition. They lack the internal microbial flora that produce much of decomposition and quite commonly mummify if kept in even moderately dry conditions.

Embalming is the practice of delaying decomposition of human and animal remains. Embalming slows decomposition somewhat, but does not forestall it indefinitely. Embalmers typically pay great attention to parts of the body seen by mourners, such as the face and hands. The chemicals used in embalming repel most insects, and slow down bacterial putrefaction by either killing existing bacteria in or on the body themselves or by "fixing" cellular proteins, which means that they cannot act as a nutrient source for subsequent bacterial infections. In sufficiently dry environments, an embalmed body may end up mummified and it is not uncommon for bodies to remain preserved to a viewable extent after decades. Notable viewable embalmed bodies include those of

• Vladimir Lenin, whose body was kept submerged in a special tank of fluid for decades and is on public display in Lenin's Mausoleum.
• Padre Pio, whose body was injected with formalin prior to burial in a dry vault^{[citation needed]} from which he was later removed and placed on public display at the San Giovanni Rotondo.
• Evita Peron whose body was injected with paraffin and was kept perfectly preserved for many years, and still is as far as is known (her body is no longer on public display).

However even without embalming a body buried in a sufficiently dry environment may be well preserved for decades, such as the body of the murdered civil rights activist Medgar Evers.^[8]

Bodies submerged in peat bog may become naturally "embalmed", arresting decomposition and resulting in a preserved specimen known as a bog body. The time for an embalmed body to be reduced to a skeleton varies greatly. Even when a body is decomposed, embalming treatment can still be achieved (the arterial system decays more slowly) but would not restore a natural appearance without extensive reconstruction and cosmetic work, and is largely used to control the foul odors due to decomposition.

In some cases, bodies are inexplicably preserved (with no technique used) for decades or centuries and appear almost the same as when they died. This is known as incorruptibility. Though, it is not known how long a body can stay free of decay.^[9][10]

See also

• Cadaverine
• Decompiculture
• Embalming
• Putrescine
• Staling

References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Decomposition

Look up decomposition, spoilage, or perishable in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

1. ^ Statheropoulos M, Agapiou A. et al. (2007). "Environmental aspects of VOCs evolved in the early stages of human decomposition". Sci. Total Environ. 385 (1–3): 221–227. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.07.003. PMID 17669473.
2. ^ Eberhardt TL, Elliot DA. (2008). "A preliminary investigation of insect colonization and succession on remains in New Zealand". Forensic Sci. Int. 176 (2–3): 217–223. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.09.010. PMID 17997065.
3. ^ Buckberry, Jo. "Missing, Presumed Buried? Bone Diagenesis and the Under-Representation of Anglo-Saxon Children"
4. ^ Smith, KGV. (1987). A Manual of Forensic Entomology. Cornell Univ. Pr.. pp. 464. ISBN 0801419271.
5. ^ Kulshrestha P, Satpathy DK. (2001). "Use of beetles in forensic entomology". Forensic Sci. Int. 120 (1–2): 15–17. doi:10.1016/S0379-0738(01)00410-8. PMID 11457603.
6. ^ Schmitt, A.; Cunha, E., Pinheiro, J. (2006). Forensic Anthropology and Medicine: Complementary Sciences From Recovery to Cause of Death. Humana Press. pp. 464. ISBN 1588298248.
7. ^ Haglund, WD.; Sorg, MH. (1996). Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains. CRC Press. pp. 636. ISBN 0849394341.
8. ^ Quigley, C. (1998). Modern Mummies: The Preservation of the Human Body in the Twentieth Century. McFarland. pp. 213–214. ISBN 0786404922.
9. ^ http://people.howstuffworks.com/incorruptible.htm
10. ^ http://www.overcomeproblems.com/incorruptables.htm

External links

• 1Lecture.com, Food Decomposition (a Flash animation)

Death and related topics In medicine Terminal illness · End-of-life care · Autopsy · Brain death · Clinical death · Euthanasia · Lazarus syndrome · Persistent vegetative state Lists Causes of death by rate · List of preventable causes of death · People by cause of death · List of expressions related to death · Notable deaths in 2007 · Notable deaths in 2008 · Notable deaths in 2009 Mortality Immortality · Perinatal mortality · Infant mortality · Child mortality · Legal death · Maternal death · Mortality rate After death Body: Burial · Cremation · Cryonics · Decomposition · Disposal · Mummification · Promession · Resomation Death certificate · Funeral · Grief · Mourning · Customs · Afterlife · Intermediate state Paranormal Out-of-body experience · Near death experience · Near-death studies · Reincarnation research · Séance Legal Will (law) · Trust law · Administration of an estate on death Other Murder · Genocide · Suicide · Assisted suicide · Fascination with death · Martyr · Sacrifice (Human · Animal) · War · Death (personification) · Death and culture · Category:Death by country · Capital punishment Death Portal

Modelling ecosystems - trophic components General Abiotic component · Behaviour · Biogeochemical cycle · Biomass · Biotic component · Carrying capacity · Competition · Ecosystem · Ecosystem ecology · Ecosystem model · Keystone species · List of feeding behaviours · Metabolic theory of ecology · Productivity Producers Autotrophs · Chemosynthesis · Chemotrophs · Foundation species · Mixotrophs · Myco-heterotrophy · Mycotroph · Organotrophs · Photoheterotrophs · Photosynthesis · Photosynthetic efficiency · Phototrophs · Primary nutritional groups · Primary production Consumers Apex predator · Bacterivore · Carnivores · Chemoorganotroph · Generalist and specialist species · Herbivores · Heterotroph · Heterotrophic nutrition · Mesopredator release hypothesis · Omnivores · Predation Decomposers Chemoorganoheterotrophy · Decomposition · Detritivores · Detritus Microorganisms Bacteriophage · Lithoautotroph · Lithotrophy · Microbial food web · Microbial loop · Microbial metabolism · Phage ecology Food webs Cold seeps · Hydrothermal vents · Intertidal · Kelp forests · Lakes · North Pacific Subtropical Gyre · Rivers · San Francisco Estuary · Soil · Tidal pool Trophic effects Ascendency · Bioaccumulation · Biomagnification · Cascade effect · Competitive exclusion principle · Copiotrophs · Dominance · Ecological efficiency · Ecological network · Ecological pyramid · Ecological succession · Energy quality · Energy Systems Language · f-ratio · Feed conversion ratio · Feeding frenzy · Mesotrophic soil · Oligotroph · Paradox of the plankton · Trophic cascade · Trophic level · Trophic mutualism · Trophic state index Defense/counter Antipredator adaptations · Herbivore adaptations to plant defense · Plant defense against herbivores Modelling ecosystems - other components Population ecology Abundance · Ecological yield · Effective population size · Logistic function · Malthusian growth model · Maximum sustainable yield · Population cycle · Population dynamics · Population modeling · Population size · Predator–prey equations · Resilience · Small population size · Stability Species Biodiversity · Density-dependent inhibition · Ecological effects of biodiversity · Ecological extinction · Endemic species · Flagship species · Gradient analysis · Indicator species · Introduced species · Invasive species · Latitudinal gradients in species diversity · Minimum viable population · Occupancy-abundance relationship · Population viability analysis · Rapoport's rule · Relative abundance distribution · Relative species abundance · Species diversity · Species homogeneity · Species richness · Species distribution · Species-area curve · Umbrella species Species interaction Antibiosis · Biological interaction · Commensalism · Ecological facilitation · Mutualism Landscape ecology Cross-boundary subsidy · Ecocline · Ecotone · Ecotype · Disturbance · Edge effect · Foster's rule · Habitat fragmentation · Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis · Island biogeography · Landscape epidemiology · Landscape limnology · Metapopulation · Patch dynamics · Source–sink dynamics Habitats Ecological niche · Ecological trap · Ecosystem engineer · Environmental niche modelling · Niche differentiation Other components Assembly rules · Bateman's principle · Bioluminescence · Community ecology · Ecological collapse · Ecological debt · Ecological deficit · Ecological energetics · Ecological indicator · Ecological threshold · Ecosystem diversity · Emergence · Kleiber's law · Liebig's law of the minimum · Marginal value theorem · Thorson's rule Other Allometry · Balance of Nature · Biological data visualization · Biogeography · Constructal theory · Ecocline · Ecological economics · Ecological footprint · Ecological forecasting · Ecological humanities · Ecological stoichiometry · Ecopath · Ecosystem based fisheries · Endolith · Evolutionary ecology · Functional ecology · Industrial ecology · Macroecology · Microecosystem · Natural environment · Systems ecology · Theoretical ecology List of ecology topics

Categories: Anaerobic digestion | Biodegradable waste management | Composting | Signs of death | Inventory | Destruction

 

 

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